While my research into the history of orchids is still in its early stages, the journey has already been remarkably illuminating. I recently explored the world of prehistoric botany, documenting extraordinary amber specimens containing insects dusted with orchid pollen, some dating back to the Miocene, and possibly even the Late Cretaceous. But the next stop in this long botanical timeline brings us somewhere more familiar, yet no less legendary: ancient Mesopotamia.
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| a depiction of King Ashurbanipal from relief carvings |
Mesopotamia flourished between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, forming the northern arc of the Fertile Crescent. While the region corresponds largely to modern‑day Iraq, its cultural influence extended into parts of Iran, Turkey, Syria, and Kuwait. One of its greatest cities was Nineveh, which rose to become the capital of the Neo‑Assyrian Empire. Around 700 BCE, Nineveh was the largest city in the world — a center of art, learning, and engineering, complete with botanical gardens, sprawling parks, and even a royal zoo.
From 669 BCE until his death, the empire was ruled by King Ashurbanipal, a rare “scholar‑king.” He is often depicted holding a stylus alongside his weapons, symbolizing his mastery of literature and mathematics as much as his military power (Britannica). It was this obsession with recorded knowledge that preserved the very recipes we study today.
His most enduring legacy was the creation of the Royal Library of Nineveh, often described as the world’s first systematically organized “universal” library. It may have contained tens of thousands of texts, a collection unmatched until the rise of the Library of Alexandria (British Museum).
When researchers excavated the site of the Royal Library in 1849, they unearthed the shattered remains of a massive literary collection. Among the ruins were monumental texts like the Epic of Gilgamesh and the “Flood Tablet,” which provided a narrative of a great flood that, until that discovery, was widely believed to exist only in the Bible (British Museum, n.d.). Alongside these epic myths, archaeologists also found a glimpse into the domestic life of the elite which were detailed ingredient lists for royal recipes. These clay tablets described elaborate meals requiring luxury items such as dates, apples, figs, pomegranates, and saffron (Bottéro, as summarized in Popa et al., 2020).
Although no surviving Mesopotamian tablet explicitly names orchids, the people of ancient Mesopotamia relied heavily on tubers, roots, and plant starches in both their cuisine and their medicine (Popa et al., 2020). Cuneiform texts describe a wide range of thickened drinks, porridges, and herbal decoctions made from ingredients like barley starch, emmer wheat, legumes, and various unnamed roots. These preparations were used to soothe the stomach, strengthen the weak, and provide nourishment during illness, roles that mirror the later medicinal uses of orchid tubers in Greek, Persian, and Ottoman traditions (Erdoğan, n.d.; Popa et al., 2020). Because edible Orchis species grew naturally throughout northern Iraq, eastern Turkey, and western Iran, it is entirely plausible that similar tubers were part of Mesopotamian foodways, even if the tablets do not name them directly. In this sense, the warm, restorative beverages of ancient Mesopotamia form an early chapter in the much longer story that eventually culminates in the Ottoman drink we now know as salep.
The era of these grand Assyrian feasts came to an end following the death of Ashurbanipal around 627 BC, as the Neo‑Assyrian Empire began to fracture under the weight of intense civil wars (Britannica, n.d.). By 612 BC, the capital city of Nineveh was destroyed. Yet, the very fire and collapse that ended the empire helped bake and preserve the clay tablets within the ruins (British Museum, n.d.). These surviving records carried the knowledge of ancient culinary practices through the centuries, echoing in the traditional Mediterranean and Middle Eastern milk‑based drinks that would later evolve into salep‑style preparations (Erdoğan, n.d.; The Istanbul Insider, n.d.).
More modern images by way of botanical drawings of the orchids mentioned above
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| Botanical drawing of Eulophia Virens from 1866 |
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| Botanical drawing of Disa Uniflora from 1911 |
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Botanical drawing of Habanera procera from 1858 |
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Botanical drawing of Orchis mascula from between 1917 and 1926 |
So what is Salep?
Salep (pronounced SAW‑lep) is a traditional beverage made from the dried, ground tubers of certain orchids, most famously Orchis mascula. The name mascula means "male," a reference to the plant’s paired tubers. In fact, the word "Salep" itself is derived from the Arabic saḥlab, which translates to "fox testicles"—further cementing the plant's long-standing connection to virility.
Preparing Salep is a meticulous process. The tubers are harvested at maturity, then washed and briefly boiled to halt growth and preserve their starch content. After boiling, they are dried until they become rock‑hard and finally ground into a fine, silky flour. This flour is rich in glucomannan, a soluble fiber that thickens beautifully when heated.
Historically, Salep was enjoyed as a comforting drink and used medicinally to soothe digestive discomfort, including heartburn and gas (Erdoğan). While the use of orchid tubers in food and medicine is ancient, the earliest clear references to Salep as a named beverage come from the Ottoman period. Earlier uses likely existed, but they are not firmly documented.
My research eventually led me to a well-traveled friend on Facebook, who pointed me toward a local shop that might carry the mix. As soon as my partner, Josh, and I finished work, we headed to the next town over to hunt it down. After wandering the aisles (and accidentally buying eight pounds of persimmons) we finally spotted it tucked near the Turkish Delight. There were only two boxes left, so I grabbed them both.
Back home, I was too eager to wait. I took a bit of a shortcut by heating milk in the microwave and using a frother to blend the mix with a touch of sugar and cinnamon. That first sip was the definition of "cozy," and I immediately understood why it’s a winter staple. While I shared a taste with Josh, I ended up finishing the cup myself. I’ve since learned that my microwave method wasn't quite right; to reach that ideal "melted milkshake" consistency, the milk really needs to be simmered on the stove to allow the starches to thicken properly.
It has been incredible to trace the lineage of orchids through human history. Just recently, I attended a Triad Orchid Society meeting where members bring their plants to be rated by an American Orchid Society judge. One plant caught my eye immediately: a Habenaria.
I couldn't help but tell the owner how her plant’s relatives were documented as a primary food source in ancient Mesopotamia. She was floored! Another member even suggested I put together a display for a future show to share these historical findings. It feels like I’m only scratching the surface of this story, and I’m so excited to see where this research leads next.
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| Orchis mascula in it's natural environment |
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Order: Asparagales
- Family: Orchidaceae
- Subfamily: Orchidoideae
- Genus: Orchis
- Species: Orchis mascula
In the wild, Orchis mascula is a hardy perennial that typically reaches a height of 20 to 24 inches. Its most recognizable feature is the cluster of oblong, pale green leaves at the base of the stem, which are often decorated with distinct brownish-purple spots. Interestingly, while this orchid is a favorite of pollinators like bees, wasps, and the occasional beetle, it is actually a master of deception; the plant produces no nectar, yet its appearance successfully lures in insects to complete the pollination process (Popa et al., 2020).
The geographical range of this species is remarkably vast. It stretches from the coastal edges of Portugal and Ireland, through Scandinavia, and deep into Russia. Its reach also extends south into Northern Africa and across the Middle East as far as Iran (The Istanbul Insider, n.d.).
Because of its high adaptability, Orchis mascula thrives in a diverse array of habitats, from sun-drenched meadows and mountain pastures to the cool, dappled light of deep forests. It is also an impressive "climber," found everywhere from sea level to high-altitude regions reaching 8,000 feet (Erdoğan, n.d.).
References
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. (n.d.). Ashurbanipal. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ashurbanipal British Museum. (n.d.). A library fit for a king.
https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/library-fit-king Erdoğan, N. (n.d.). Salep: Turkey's underground treasure. The New Gastronome.
https://thenewgastronome.com/salep/ Popa, F., Popa, A., & Cantor, M. (2020). History of orchids: A history of discovery, lust and wealth. Scientific Papers. Series B, Horticulture, LXIV(1), 589–594.
https://horticulturejournal.usamv.ro/pdf/2020/issue_1/Art76.pdf The Istanbul Insider. (n.d.). Salep and boza: History and recipe of special Turkish winter drinks.
https://theistanbulinsider.com/salep-and-boza-history-and-recipe-of-special-turkish-winter-drinks/
- Eulophia virens. (1866). [Botanical illustration]. From The Orchid-Grower's Manual.
- Disa uniflora. (1911). [Botanical illustration]. From The Flora of South Africa.
- Habenaria procera. (1858). [Botanical illustration]. From Curtis's Botanical Magazine.
- Orchis mascula. (c. 1917–1926). [Botanical illustration]. From Picturesque Britain.
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